Peptide Research Database
Every source cited across this site, in one browsable place: 78 human records, 25 animal studies, plus in-vitro work, trial registrations and regulatory documents. Each record states its evidence class — a rat study is labeled a rat study. Filter by compound, evidence type or topic, and follow any record back to the guide that uses it.
- HumanMeta-analysis of randomized trials2026
Body composition, hepatic fat, metabolic, and safety outcomes of Tesamorelin, a GHRH analogue, in HIV-associated lipodystrophy: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Badran AS et al. · Obesity Research & Clinical Practice, 2026;20(1):2–12 · PMID 41545261
Recent meta-analysis pooling the randomized tesamorelin trials in HIV-associated lipodystrophy.
- HumanCase report2026
Five primary melanomas in situ in a patient with recent tanning bed use, melanotan exposure, and anabolic hormone use
Vadner DJ, Smith S · JAAD Case Reports, 2026;73:111–114 · PMID 42328529
Recent case report: five primary melanomas in situ in a patient with combined tanning bed, melanotan and anabolic hormone exposure.
Limitations: Multiple concurrent exposures; causation cannot be attributed to MT-II alone.
- MixedNarrative review2026
Injectable Peptide Therapy: A Primer for Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Physicians
Mayfield CK et al. · American Journal of Sports Medicine, 2026;54(1):223–229 · PMID 41476424
Physician-facing primer on injectable peptides in sports medicine.
- RegulatoryAdvisory committee vote (non-binding)2026
Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee vote on peptide bulk drug substances, July 23–24, 2026
FDA Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee · FDA · Briefing document (PDF)
The committee voted in favour of adding several peptides to the 503A bulk drug substances list — BPC-157 and KPV by 8–6 margins — over FDA staff scientists' assessment that quality safety and effectiveness data are lacking.
Limitations: Advisory votes are not binding. FDA makes the final decision through formal rulemaking, and nothing about the legal status of these substances changed on the day of the vote.
BPC-157TB-500KPVMOTS-cCited in our guide →Cited in our guide →
- RegulatoryAdvisory committee record2026
Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee, meeting of July 23–24, 2026
FDA · FDA · Briefing document (PDF)
The advisory committee agenda covering BPC-157, KPV and TB-500 bulk drug substances.
- Trial registryTrial registration (no results)2026
Phase 1/2 trial of the TB-500 fragment
— · ClinicalTrials.gov · NCT07487363
Registered February 2026, not yet reported. Registration is not evidence.
- Trial registryTrial registration (no results)2026
Phase 2 trial of a topical 0.1% GHK-Cu gel
— · ClinicalTrials.gov · NCT07437586
Registered but not yet reported. Registration is not evidence.
- Trial registryTrial registration (no results)2026
Phase 2 trial of BPC-157 in hamstring strain
— · ClinicalTrials.gov · NCT07437547
Registered February 2026, not yet reported. Registration is not evidence.
- RegulatoryRegulatory list2026
Prohibited List 2026
World Anti-Doping Agency · WADA
Names BPC-157 explicitly under S0; thymosin-β4 derivatives including TB-500 under S2.3; GHRH analogues including CJC-1295, sermorelin and tesamorelin under S2.2.4. The S0/S2 split affects how sanctions are handled.
BPC-157TB-500CJC-1295 + IpamorelinRetatrutideSermorelinTesamorelinCited in our guide →Cited in our guide →
- HumanPhase 3 head-to-head topline (company announcement)2026
REDEFINE 4 head-to-head results versus tirzepatide
Novo Nordisk · Company announcement, February 2026 · NCT06131437 · NCT06131437
Sponsor announcement of the head-to-head trial CagriSema lost to tirzepatide.
Limitations: Not peer-reviewed; the non-inferiority margin was not disclosed.
- HumanPhase 3 trial design paper2026
Retatrutide for the treatment of obesity, obstructive sleep apnoea and knee osteoarthritis: rationale and design of the TRIUMPH registrational clinical trials
Giblin K et al. · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 2026;28(1):83–93 · PMID 41090431
Design paper for the TRIUMPH Phase 3 program: populations, titration schedules and endpoints for each registrational trial. Describes methodology, not results.
- MixedNarrative review2026
Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies for Musculoskeletal Injuries and Athletic Performance
Mendias CL et al. · Sports Medicine · PMID 41966639
Review covering both repair peptides; reports that no study has tested the two in combination.
- HumanPhase 3 randomized controlled trial2026
Survodutide in adults with obesity and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (SYNCHRONIZE-MASLD)
Kaplan LM et al. · Nature Medicine · PMID 42252333
Phase 3 trial in obesity with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, reporting superiority to placebo.
- HumanPhase 3 randomized controlled trial2026
Survodutide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Adults with Obesity (SYNCHRONIZE-1)
le Roux CW, Wharton S, Startseva E, et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, published online 7 June 2026 · PMID 42253238
Phase 3 obesity trial of the glucagon/GLP-1 dual agonist survodutide.
- HumanPhase 3 randomized controlled trial (n=725, 76 weeks)2026
SYNCHRONIZE-1 dose arms and results
le Roux CW et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · PMID 42253238
725 adults randomized to survodutide 3.6 mg, 6.0 mg or placebo for 76 weeks. Treatment-regimen estimand: −12.2% at 3.6 mg, −13.0% at 6.0 mg, −5.4% for placebo. The two active doses were close together, and the placebo arm lost an unusually large amount.
- HumanPhase 3 randomized controlled trial2026
SYNCHRONIZE-2: survodutide in adults with obesity and type 2 diabetes
Wharton S et al. · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism · PMID 41216778
Phase 3 trial of survodutide in adults with obesity and type 2 diabetes.
- HumanPhase 3 topline (company announcement)2026
TRIUMPH-1 Phase 3 topline results
Eli Lilly · Company announcement, 21 May 2026
Topline results of the pivotal Phase 3 obesity trial as announced by the sponsor and presented at ADA 2026.
Limitations: Not peer-reviewed; company disclosure.
- HumanPhase 3 sub-study topline (company announcement)2026
TRIUMPH-1 sub-study results in obstructive sleep apnoea and knee osteoarthritis
Eli Lilly · Company announcement, 6 June 2026
Sponsor-announced sub-study results covering obstructive sleep apnoea and knee osteoarthritis endpoints within TRIUMPH-1.
Limitations: Not peer-reviewed; company disclosure.
- HumanPhase 3 topline (company announcement)2026
TRIUMPH-2 and TRIUMPH-3 topline results and Q1 2027 BLA submission plan
Eli Lilly · Company announcement, 23 July 2026
Topline results from two further Phase 3 trials plus the sponsor's stated plan to submit a BLA in Q1 2027 — a submission plan, not an approval date.
Limitations: Not peer-reviewed; company disclosure.
- HumanPhase 3a randomized controlled trial (n=1,206, 68 weeks)2025
Cagrilintide-Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes (REDEFINE 2)
Davies MJ et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · PMID 40544432
The type 2 diabetes arm of the REDEFINE program: −13.7% versus −3.4% on placebo at 68 weeks on the treatment-policy estimand, with 73.5% reaching HbA1c 6.5% or lower against 15.9% on placebo.
- HumanPhase 3 randomized controlled trial2025
Coadministered Cagrilintide and Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (REDEFINE 1)
Garvey WT et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2025;393(7):635–647 · PMID 40544433
Phase 3 trial of cagrilintide plus semaglutide co-administration in overweight and obesity.
CagriSemaSemaglutideCited in our guide →Cited in our guide →
- HumanRandomized trial substudy (body composition)2025
Effects of retatrutide on body composition in people with type 2 diabetes: a substudy of a phase 2 randomised trial
Coskun T et al. · The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 2025;13(8):674–684 · PMID 40609566
Body-composition substudy of the Phase 2 diabetes trial, separating fat mass from lean mass changes under retatrutide.
- RegulatoryDrug label2025
FORZINITY (elamipretide) prescribing information, NDA 215244
FDA / DailyMed · DailyMed
The approved label for elamipretide as FORZINITY — Barth syndrome only.
- HumanCase report2025
Hepatotoxicity induced by MK-677
Cobani E, Amin MS, Hasso M, Kumbar L · BMJ Case Reports, 2025;18(7):e265728 · PMID 40675653
A man in his early 30s developed elevated liver enzymes after two months of MK-677 use; liver function returned to normal after stopping.
Limitations: Single case report; establishes an association, not causation or incidence.
- HumanCase report2025
Melanotan II nasal spray: a possible risk factor for oral mucosal malignant melanoma?
Alsabbagh AY, Bhujel N, Singh RP · International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 2025;54(9):806–808 · PMID 40210573
Case report raising oral mucosal melanoma as a possible risk of MT-II nasal spray use.
- HumanPhase 3b open-label head-to-head randomized trial (n=751, 72 weeks)2025
Tirzepatide as Compared with Semaglutide for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-5)
Aronne LJ et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · PMID 40353578
The direct head-to-head almost nobody cites: 751 adults with obesity and without diabetes, randomized to maximum tolerated tirzepatide (10 or 15 mg) or semaglutide (1.7 or 2.4 mg) for 72 weeks. Tirzepatide −20.2% versus semaglutide −13.7%, and waist circumference −18.4 cm versus −13.0 cm. Because both arms ran in one trial, this evidence outranks any cross-trial comparison of STEP-1 against SURMOUNT-1.
Limitations: Open-label rather than blinded, which can influence adherence and reported tolerability.
TirzepatideSemaglutideCited in our guide →Cited in our guide →
- HumanPhase 2 randomized controlled trial (n=293, 48 weeks)2024
A Phase 2 Randomized Trial of Survodutide in MASH and Fibrosis
Sanyal AJ et al. · New England Journal of Medicine · PMID 38847460
Biopsy-based MASH trial: 62% of the 4.8 mg group achieved improvement in steatohepatitis without worsening fibrosis versus 14% on placebo. The dose-response was quadratic rather than linear — 6.0 mg performed worse than 4.8 mg. Nausea 66% and diarrhea 49% versus 23% each on placebo.
Limitations: Phase 2; gastrointestinal adverse event rates were high.
- HumanClinical pharmacology study2024
Efficacy, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of survodutide in cirrhosis
Lawitz EJ et al. · Journal of Hepatology · PMID 38857788
Tolerability and pharmacokinetics of survodutide in participants with cirrhosis — relevant to whether the compound can be used in advanced liver disease.
- RegulatoryRegulatory safety communication2024
FDA's Concerns with Unapproved GLP-1 Drugs Used for Weight Loss
FDA · FDA
FDA's safety communication on compounded and unapproved GLP-1 sourcing.
SemaglutideTirzepatideRetatrutideCited in our guide →Cited in our guide →
- HumanPost-hoc subgroup analysis2024
Genotype-specific effects of elamipretide in patients with primary mitochondrial myopathy: a post hoc analysis of the MMPOWER-3 trial
Karaa A et al. · Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, 2024;19(1):431 · PMID 39574155
Post-hoc genotype analysis of the failed Phase 3 trial.
Limitations: Post-hoc analysis; hypothesis-generating only.
- HumanPhase 2 randomized controlled trial2024
Glucagon and GLP-1 receptor dual agonist survodutide for obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial
le Roux CW et al. · The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 2024;12(3):162–173 · PMID 38330987
Dose-finding obesity trial for survodutide preceding the Phase 3 program.
- RegulatoryRegulatory guidance2024
Human Drug Imports — personal importation policy and criteria
FDA · FDA · Personal Importation
FDA's personal importation policy — the legal backdrop for buying research compounds from abroad.
- AnimalMouse study2024
Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase inhibition mimics and boosts exercise-mediated improvements in muscle function in aged mice
Dimet-Wiley AL et al. · Scientific Reports, 2024;14(1):15554 · PMID 38969654
Aged-mouse study pairing NNMT inhibition with exercise.
- AnimalMouse study2024
Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase inhibition mitigates obesity-related metabolic dysfunction
Babula JJ et al. · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 2024;26(11):5272–5282 · PMID 39161060
Mouse study of NNMT inhibition on obesity-related metabolic endpoints.
- HumanRandomized controlled trial2024
Survodutide in type 2 diabetes: a randomised trial with semaglutide comparison
Blüher M et al. · Diabetologia · PMID 38095657
Type 2 diabetes trial of survodutide including a semaglutide comparator arm.
- HumanPhase 2a randomized trial2024
Triple hormone receptor agonist retatrutide for metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: a randomized phase 2a trial
Sanyal AJ et al. · Nature Medicine, 2024;30(7):2037–2048 · PMID 38858523
Substudy in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease reporting large reductions in liver fat at the higher retatrutide doses.
- RegulatoryDrug label2023
Bacteriostatic Water for Injection, USP — prescribing information
Hospira / FDA · DailyMed
The official label: sterile water preserved with 0.9% benzyl alcohol, indicated only for diluting or dissolving drugs. Not for use in neonates; animal data cited in the label put roughly 30 mL as the volume tolerated by an adult without benzyl-alcohol toxicity.
- RegulatoryRegulatory list2023
Certain Bulk Drug Substances for Use in Compounding That May Present Significant Safety Risks
FDA · FDA
The Category 2 table and the separate "nominated but withdrawn" list. BPC-157, TB-500 and injectable GHK-Cu appear under nominated-but-withdrawn — which is not the same as FDA clearing them.
- RegulatoryDrug approval records2023
Drugs@FDA records: Wegovy (semaglutide) and Zepbound (tirzepatide)
FDA · Drugs@FDA · Zepbound record
The approval records carrying the class-level warnings referenced when discussing retatrutide's likely label risks.
- HumanPhase 3 randomized controlled trial2023
Efficacy and Safety of Elamipretide in Individuals With Primary Mitochondrial Myopathy: The MMPOWER-3 Randomized Clinical Trial
Karaa A et al. · Neurology, 2023;101(3):e238–e252 · PMID 37268435
The Phase 3 trial in primary mitochondrial myopathy that failed its primary endpoints — a result the supplement-market framing of SS-31 rarely mentions.
- HumanPhase 2 randomized controlled trial2023
Retatrutide, a GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon receptor agonist, for people with type 2 diabetes: a randomised, double-blind, placebo and active-controlled, parallel-group, phase 2 trial
Rosenstock J et al. · The Lancet, 2023;402(10401):529–544 · PMID 37385280
Phase 2 trial in type 2 diabetes comparing retatrutide against placebo and dulaglutide, reporting dose-dependent reductions in HbA1c and body weight.
- HumanPhase 2 randomized controlled trial2023
Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial
Jastreboff AM et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2023;389(6):514–526 · PMID 37366315
48-week dose-finding obesity trial; the highest dose produced a mean weight reduction of 24.2%. The basis of most published retatrutide efficacy figures until the Phase 3 program reported.
- Trial registryTrial registrations2023
TRIUMPH Phase 3 registry records: TRIUMPH-1, TRIUMPH-2, TRIUMPH-3, TRIUMPH-4
Eli Lilly · ClinicalTrials.gov · NCT05929066 · NCT05929079 · NCT05882045 · NCT05931367
Registry records for the four TRIUMPH registrational trials, identifying which trial studied which population.
- RegulatoryDrug label2023
ZEPBOUND (tirzepatide) prescribing information
FDA / DailyMed · DailyMed
The approved label: chronic weight management and moderate-to-severe obstructive sleep apnea in adults with obesity; 2.5–15 mg once weekly; boxed warning for thyroid C-cell tumors.
- HumanPhase 3 randomized controlled trial2022
Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1)
Jastreboff AM et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2022;387(3):205–216 · PMID 35658024
The registrational obesity trial for tirzepatide, reporting dose-dependent weight reductions exceeding the semaglutide benchmark.
- HumanRandomized trial extension (off-treatment follow-up)2022
Weight regain and cardiometabolic effects after withdrawal of semaglutide: the STEP 1 trial extension
Wilding JPH et al. · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism, 2022;24(8):1553–1564 · PMID 35441470
Off-treatment follow-up of STEP-1 participants documenting substantial weight regain after semaglutide withdrawal.
- HumanPhase 2/3 randomized trial with open-label extension2021
A phase 2/3 randomized clinical trial followed by an open-label extension to evaluate the effectiveness of elamipretide in Barth syndrome
Reid Thompson W et al. · Genetics in Medicine, 2021;23(3):471–478 · PMID 33077895
The TAZPOWER trial in Barth syndrome — the indication where elamipretide eventually won approval as FORZINITY.
- AnimalMouse study2021
Combined nicotinamide N-methyltransferase inhibition and reduced-calorie diet normalizes body composition and enhances metabolic benefits in obese mice
Sampson CM et al. · Scientific Reports, 2021;11(1):5637 · PMID 33707534
Mouse study combining NNMT inhibition with calorie restriction, reporting additive body-composition effects.
- In vitroMedicinal chemistry / molecular design2021
Development of Cagrilintide, a Long-Acting Amylin Analogue
Kruse T et al. · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry · PMID 34288673
The design paper for cagrilintide, explaining how a long-acting amylin analogue was engineered — the mechanism that distinguishes CagriSema from every incretin-only competitor.
- HumanUncontrolled case series2021
Intra-Articular Injection of BPC 157 for Multiple Types of Knee Pain
Lee E, Padgett B · Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 2021;27(4):8–13 · PMID 34324435
An uncontrolled case series of intra-articular BPC-157 for knee pain — the only primary human report for the compound.
Limitations: No control group; cannot support efficacy claims.
- HumanCase report2021
Melanotan Tanning Injection: A Rare Cause of Priapism
Mallory CW, Lopategui DM, Cordon BH · Sexual Medicine, 2021;9(1):100298 · PMID 33460908
Case report of priapism after MT-II use.
- MixedMouse study with human observational data2021
MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis
Reynolds JC et al. · Nature Communications, 2021;12(1):470 · PMID 33473109
Shows MOTS-c rises with exercise in humans (observational) and improves physical capacity in mice (interventional). The human part is observational only.
- HumanPhase 2 dose-finding trial (n=706 on cagrilintide, 26 weeks)2021
Once-weekly cagrilintide for weight management in people with overweight and obesity: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled and active-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial
Lau DCW et al. · The Lancet, 2021;398(10317):2160–2172 · PMID 34798060
Cagrilintide alone, before it was paired with semaglutide: doses from 0.3 to 4.5 mg produced 6.0% to 10.8% weight reduction on the trial-product estimand, with 4.5 mg (10.8%) beating the liraglutide comparator (9.0%).
Limitations: Trial-product estimand; 26 weeks only.
- HumanPhase 3 randomized controlled trial2021
Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP-1)
Wilding JPH et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2021;384(11):989–1002 · PMID 33567185
The registrational obesity trial for semaglutide 2.4 mg, establishing the weight-loss benchmark later comparisons are measured against.
- HumanPhase 3 open-label head-to-head randomized trial (n=1,879, 40 weeks)2021
Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2)
Frías JP et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2021;385(6):503–515 · PMID 34170647
Head-to-head in type 2 diabetes: tirzepatide 5, 10 and 15 mg against semaglutide 1 mg over 40 weeks. HbA1c fell 2.01, 2.24 and 2.30 percentage points on tirzepatide versus 1.86 on semaglutide, with additional weight reductions of 1.9, 3.6 and 5.5 kg respectively.
Limitations: Compares against semaglutide 1 mg, which is the diabetes dose rather than the 2.4 mg obesity dose.
TirzepatideSemaglutideCited in our guide →Cited in our guide →
- RegulatoryDrug label2021
WEGOVY (semaglutide) prescribing information
FDA / DailyMed · DailyMed
The approved label: indications now spanning weight reduction, cardiovascular risk reduction and noncirrhotic MASH; dose strengths; and the boxed warning for thyroid C-cell tumors seen in rodents.
- HumanPhase 2 randomized controlled trial2020
Effects of Elamipretide on Left Ventricular Function in Patients With Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction: The PROGRESS-HF Phase 2 Trial
Butler J et al. · Journal of Cardiac Failure, 2020;26(5):429–437 · PMID 32068002
Phase 2 heart failure trial of elamipretide.
- HumanCase report with literature review2020
Melanotan II: a possible cause of renal infarction — review of the literature and case report
Peters B et al. · CEN Case Reports, 2020;9(2):159–161 · PMID 31953620
Case report of renal infarction possibly linked to MT-II.
- HumanPhase 3 randomized controlled trials2019
Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Two Randomized Phase 3 Trials (RECONNECT)
Kingsberg SA et al. · Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2019;134(5):899–908 · PMID 31599840
The registrational Phase 3 trials behind Vyleesi's approval for HSDD in premenopausal women.
- HumanRandomized controlled trial (12 months)2019
Effects of tesamorelin on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in HIV: a randomised, double-blind, multicentre trial
Stanley TL et al. · The Lancet HIV, 2019;6(12):e821–e830 · PMID 31611038
12-month NAFLD trial in HIV: a 37% relative reduction in hepatic fat fraction versus placebo, with 35% of treated participants reaching normal liver fat versus 4% on placebo.
- AnimalMouse study2019
Small molecule nicotinamide N-methyltransferase inhibitor activates senescent muscle stem cells and improves regenerative capacity of aged skeletal muscle
Neelakantan H et al. · Biochemical Pharmacology, 2019;163:481–492 · PMID 30753815
Aged-mouse study reporting improved muscle regenerative capacity under NNMT inhibition.
- HumanTrial substudy (imaging)2019
The Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone Analogue, Tesamorelin, Decreases Muscle Fat and Increases Muscle Area in Adults with HIV
Adrian S et al. · Journal of Frailty & Aging, 2019;8(3):154–159 · PMID 31237318
Imaging analysis showing decreased muscle fat and increased muscle area under tesamorelin in adults with HIV.
- RegulatoryDrug label2019
VYLEESI (bremelanotide injection) prescribing information, NDA 210557
FDA · FDA label
The approved label: indication, trial-derived adverse event rates, and the blood pressure contraindication.
- HumanRandomized dose-escalation trial2018
Randomized dose-escalation trial of elamipretide in adults with primary mitochondrial myopathy
Karaa A et al. · Neurology, 2018;90(14):e1212–e1221 · PMID 29500292
Early randomized dose-escalation trial in primary mitochondrial myopathy.
- MixedReview2018
Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data
Pickart L, Margolina A · International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2018;19(7):1987 · PMID 29986520
Broad review of GHK-Cu claims.
Limitations: Authored by the compound's commercial originator.
- AnimalMouse study2018
Selective and membrane-permeable small molecule inhibitors of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase reverse high fat diet-induced obesity in mice
Neelakantan H et al. · Biochemical Pharmacology, 2018;147:141–152 · PMID 29155147
The central mouse study behind 5-amino-1MQ's fat-loss claims: NNMT inhibition reduced diet-induced obesity.
- In vitroCell biology study2018
The Mitochondrial-Encoded Peptide MOTS-c Translocates to the Nucleus to Regulate Nuclear Gene Expression in Response to Metabolic Stress
Kim KH, Son JM, Benayoun BA, Lee C · Cell Metabolism, 2018;28(3):516–524 · PMID 29983246
Mechanism paper: MOTS-c translocates to the nucleus under metabolic stress and regulates gene expression.
- HumanNarrative review2018
The Safety and Efficacy of Growth Hormone Secretagogues
Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW · Sexual Medicine Reviews, 2018;6(1):45–53 · PMID 28400207
Review of the growth hormone secretagogue class: what human data exists, and how thin the outcome evidence is.
CJC-1295 + IpamorelinSermorelinCited in our guide →Cited in our guide →
- HumanRandomized placebo-controlled trial2017
Novel Mitochondria-Targeting Peptide in Heart Failure Treatment: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Elamipretide
Daubert MA et al. · Circulation: Heart Failure, 2017;10(12) · PMID 29217757
Randomized placebo-controlled heart failure study of elamipretide.
- HumanRandomized controlled trial (12 weeks)2017
Safety and metabolic effects of tesamorelin, a growth hormone-releasing factor analogue, in patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial
Clemmons DR et al. · PLOS ONE, 2017;12(6):e0179538 · PMID 28617838
12-week randomized trial in type 2 diabetes: tesamorelin did not alter insulin response or glycemic control — relevant because GH-axis drugs are watched for glucose effects.
- In vitroMedicinal chemistry / SAR study2017
Structure-Activity Relationship for Small Molecule Inhibitors of Nicotinamide N-Methyltransferase
Neelakantan H et al. · Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 2017;60(12):5015–5028 · PMID 28548833
The chemistry paper that identified 5-amino-1MQ among small-molecule NNMT inhibitors.
- AnimalPreclinical study (rodent and cell models)2017
Therapeutic potential of pro-angiogenic BPC157 is associated with VEGFR2 activation and up-regulation
Hsieh MJ et al. · Journal of Molecular Medicine, 2017;95(3):323–333 · PMID 27847966
Mechanism paper tying BPC-157's repair effects to VEGFR2-mediated angiogenesis — the same pathway behind the unresolved tumor-biology question.
- Trial registryTrial registrations2017
Trial registry: TAZPOWER (Barth syndrome) and MMPOWER-3
— · ClinicalTrials.gov · NCT03098797 · NCT03323749
Registry records for the two pivotal elamipretide programs.
- AnimalReview of preclinical literature2016
Brain-gut axis and pentadecapeptide BPC 157: theoretical and practical implications
Sikiric P et al. · Current Neuropharmacology, 2016;14(8):857–865 · PMID 27138887
Review of proposed brain-gut mechanisms, from the originating research group.
- RegulatoryRegulatory document2016
FDA debarment order, 81 FR 79501–79502
FDA · Federal Register
Documents the warning letters, conviction and permanent debarment connected to illegal melanotan distribution.
- AnimalReview of preclinical work2015
The development of small molecule angiotensin IV analogs to treat Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases
Wright JW, Harding JW · Progress in Neurobiology · PMID 25455861
Review of the angiotensin IV analog program including dihexa, by the group that developed it.
Limitations: Review by the originating research group; preclinical throughout.
- AnimalMouse study2015
The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance
Lee C et al. · Cell Metabolism, 2015;21(3):443–54 · PMID 25738459
The discovery paper: MOTS-c improved metabolic homeostasis and reduced obesity and insulin resistance in mice.
- HumanObservational / genetic association2015
The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c: a player in exceptional longevity?
Fuku N et al. · Aging Cell, 2015;14(6):921–3 · PMID 26289118
Observational work linking a MOTS-c-region polymorphism to longevity populations. Association, not intervention.
- HumanRandomized controlled trial2014
Effect of tesamorelin on visceral fat and liver fat in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation: a randomized clinical trial
Stanley TL et al. · JAMA, 2014;312(4):380–389 · PMID 25038357
Randomized trial extending the visceral-fat finding to liver fat in HIV-associated abdominal fat accumulation.
- HumanCase report2014
Melanoma associated with the use of melanotan-II
Hjuler KF, Lorentzen HF · Dermatology, 2014;228(1):34–6 · PMID 24355990
Case report of melanoma associated with MT-II use.
- RegulatoryRegulatory approval record2014
SCENESSE (afamelanotide) — European public assessment report
European Medicines Agency · EMA
The approved Melanotan I product — afamelanotide, licensed for erythropoietic protoporphyria only. What regulated melanocortin approval actually looks like.
- AnimalPreclinical study — retracted2014
The procognitive and synaptogenic effects of angiotensin IV-derived peptides are dependent on activation of the hepatocyte growth factor/c-Met system — RETRACTED
Benoist CC et al. · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2014;351(2):390–402 · PMID 25187433 · Retraction notice (2025)
Proposed the HGF/c-Met mechanism that most dihexa marketing still cites, including the potency comparison against BDNF.
Limitations: RETRACTED. An expression of concern was issued in 2021 and the paper was formally retracted in 2025 (J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2025;392(4):103567). Claims resting on it cannot be treated as established.
- RegulatoryRegulatory determination2013
Determination That GEREF (Sermorelin Acetate) Injection Was Not Withdrawn From Sale for Reasons of Safety or Effectiveness
FDA · Federal Register
FDA's formal finding that Geref left the market in 2008 as a business decision, not over safety or effectiveness — the document behind sermorelin's unusual legal position among peptides.
- AnimalPreclinical study (rodent and cell models)2013
Evaluation of metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs as procognitive/antidementia agents
McCoy AT et al. · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · PMID 23055539
The paper that introduced dihexa as a metabolically stabilised angiotensin IV analog and reported procognitive effects in rodent dementia models.
- HumanCase report2013
Melanotan and the posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
Kaski D et al. · Annals of Internal Medicine, 2013;158(9):707–8 · PMID 23648958
Case report linking melanotan use to posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome.
- AnimalPreclinical mechanism study2013
The mitochondrial-targeted compound SS-31 re-energizes ischemic mitochondria by interacting with cardiolipin
Birk AV et al. · Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 2013;24(8):1250–61 · PMID 23813215
The cardiolipin-binding mechanism paper for SS-31.
- HumanRandomized controlled trial (20 weeks)2012
Effects of growth hormone-releasing hormone on cognitive function in adults with mild cognitive impairment and healthy older adults: results of a controlled trial
Baker LD et al. · Archives of Neurology, 2012;69(11):1420–1429 · PMID 22869065
20-week trial using tesamorelin in adults with mild cognitive impairment and healthy older adults, reporting improved executive function. A single trial that has not been replicated at scale.
Limitations: Single study; modest effects; not an approved indication.
- HumanCase report2012
Melanotan II injection resulting in systemic toxicity and rhabdomyolysis
Nelson ME, Bryant SM, Aks SE · Clinical Toxicology, 2012;50(10):1169–73 · PMID 23121206
Case report of systemic toxicity and rhabdomyolysis after unregulated MT-II injection.
- HumanCase report2012
Melanotan-associated melanoma in situ
Ong S, Bowling J · Australasian Journal of Dermatology, 2012;53(4):301–2 · PMID 22724573
Case report of melanoma in situ in a melanotan user.
- In vitroIn-vitro study2012
Stem cell recovering effect of copper-free GHK in skin
Choi HR et al. · Journal of Peptide Science, 2012;18(11):685–90 · PMID 23019153
In-vitro study of copper-free GHK on skin stem cell markers.
- In vitroEx-vivo skin penetration study2011
Human skin penetration of a copper tripeptide in vitro as a function of skin layer
Hostynek JJ, Dreher F, Maibach HI · Inflammation Research, 2011;60(1):79–86 · PMID 20721598
Penetration study relevant to whether topical GHK-Cu reaches living skin layers at meaningful concentrations.
- HumanCase report2011
Melanotan-associated melanoma
Paurobally D et al. · British Journal of Dermatology, 2011;164(6):1403–5 · PMID 21564053
Case report of melanoma in a melanotan user. Association, not established causation — but part of a recurring pattern.
- HumanPhase 2b randomized placebo-controlled trial (n=123)2011
MK-0677 (ibutamoren mesylate) for the treatment of patients recovering from hip fracture: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled phase IIb study
Adunsky A et al. · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · PMID 21067829
Hip-fracture recovery trial: gait speed improved modestly, most other functional measures did not. The trial was terminated early over a congestive heart failure safety signal in a small number of patients.
Limitations: Stopped early for a safety signal; functional benefit minimal despite large IGF-I increases.
- AnimalReview of preclinical literature2011
Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: novel therapy in gastrointestinal tract
Sikiric P et al. · Current Pharmaceutical Design, 2011;17(16):1612–32 · PMID 21548867
Review of the gastrointestinal animal literature: ulcer healing, protection against NSAID damage, colitis models. Authored by the group that produced most of the primary studies.
- AnimalPreclinical study (rat tendon model and cultured tenocytes)2011
The promoting effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on tendon healing involves tendon outgrowth, cell survival and cell migration
Chang CH et al. · Journal of Applied Physiology, 2011;110(3):774–80 · PMID 21030672
The most-cited tendon paper: BPC-157 promoted tendon fibroblast outgrowth, survival and migration. Rodent and cell data — no human tendon study exists.
- AnimalReview of preclinical literature2010
Animal studies with thymosin β4, a multifunctional tissue repair and regeneration peptide
Philp D, Kleinman HK · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 2010;1194:81–6 · PMID 20536453
Review of the animal repair literature for thymosin β4.
- HumanRandomized controlled trial with safety extension2010
Effects of tesamorelin in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation: a randomized placebo-controlled trial with a safety extension
Falutz J et al. · JAIDS, 2010;53(3):311–22 · PMID 20101189
Confirmatory tesamorelin trial with a safety extension, again showing visceral fat reduction.
- HumanPooled Phase 3 analysis2010
Effects of tesamorelin, a growth hormone-releasing factor analog, in HIV-infected patients with excess abdominal fat: a pooled analysis of two multicenter, double-blind placebo-controlled phase 3 trials with safety extension data
Falutz J et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · PMID 20554713
Pooled analysis of both registrational Phase 3 trials — the dataset behind Egrifta's 2010 approval.
- RegulatoryDrug label2010
EGRIFTA SV (tesamorelin) prescribing information
FDA / DailyMed · DailyMed
The approved label: indication limited to excess abdominal fat in HIV-associated lipodystrophy, dosing, contraindications and monitoring requirements.
- HumanCase report2009
Change in moles linked to use of unlicensed "sun tan jab"
Langan EA et al. · BMJ, 2009;338:b277 · PMID 19174439
BMJ report of mole changes in melanotan users.
- In vitroIn-vitro study2009
Copper-GHK increases integrin expression and p63 positivity by keratinocytes
Kang YA et al. · Archives of Dermatological Research, 2009;301(4):301–6 · PMID 19319546
Keratinocyte culture study of GHK-Cu effects on integrin expression.
- HumanCase report2009
Eruptive melanocytic naevi following melanotan injection
Cousen P, Colver G, Helbling I · British Journal of Dermatology, 2009;161(3):707–8 · PMID 19575725
Case report of eruptive melanocytic naevi after melanotan injection.
- HumanCase report2009
α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone-induced eruptive nevi
Cardones AR, Grichnik JM · Archives of Dermatology, 2009;145(4):441–4 · PMID 19380666
Case report of eruptive nevi under α-MSH analog exposure.
- Human2-year randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial2008
Effects of an oral ghrelin mimetic on body composition and clinical outcomes in healthy older adults: a randomized trial
Nass R et al. · Annals of Internal Medicine · PMID 18981485
The central MK-677 trial: 25 mg daily for two years in 65 healthy adults aged 60–81 raised GH and IGF-I and increased fat-free mass versus placebo. Fasting glucose and cortisol rose modestly; increased appetite and lower-limb oedema were common.
Limitations: Fat-free mass includes water; the trial did not show improved strength or function.
- Human12-month randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (n=563)2008
Growth hormone secretagogue MK-677: no clinical effect on AD progression in a randomized trial
Sevigny JJ et al. · Neurology, 2008;71(21):1702–1708 · PMID 19015485
MK-677 25 mg raised IGF-I by 60–73% and made no difference to Alzheimer's progression on any cognitive or functional measure. A clean demonstration that raising IGF-I is not itself a clinical benefit.
- HumanRandomized trial extension2008
Long-term safety and effects of tesamorelin, a growth hormone-releasing factor analogue, in HIV patients with abdominal fat accumulation
Falutz J et al. · AIDS, 2008;22(14):1719–28 · PMID 18690162
Long-term extension showing visceral fat reduction is maintained on treatment — and reaccumulates after discontinuation.
- AnimalMouse study2008
Melanocortin-derived tripeptide KPV has anti-inflammatory potential in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease
Kannengiesser K et al. · Inflammatory Bowel Diseases, 2008;14(3):324–31 · PMID 18092346
Mouse IBD-model study of KPV's anti-inflammatory effect.
- AnimalPreclinical study (cell and mouse models)2008
PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation
Dalmasso G et al. · Gastroenterology, 2008;134(1):166–78 · PMID 18061177
The central KPV paper: PepT1-mediated uptake at inflamed intestinal epithelium reduced inflammation in cell and mouse models.
- HumanSystematic review2008
Systematic review: the effects of growth hormone on athletic performance
Liu H et al. · Annals of Internal Medicine, 2008;148(10):747–58 · PMID 18347346
Systematic review finding that growth hormone increases lean body mass without measurably improving strength or performance — the finding GH-secretagogue marketing has to answer.
- MixedReview2008
The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling
Pickart L · Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition, 2008;19(8):969–88 · PMID 18644225
Review of GHK in tissue remodeling.
Limitations: Authored by the compound's commercial originator.
- MixedReview2008
α-MSH and related tripeptides: biochemistry, anti-inflammatory and protective effects in vitro and in vivo
Brzoska T et al. · Endocrine Reviews, 2008;29(5):581–602 · PMID 18612139
Review of α-MSH-derived peptides including KPV: biochemistry and anti-inflammatory effects across in-vitro and animal work.
- HumanRandomized controlled trial2007
Metabolic effects of a growth hormone-releasing factor in patients with HIV
Falutz J et al. · New England Journal of Medicine, 2007;357(23):2359–70 · PMID 18057338
Registrational-path trial of tesamorelin showing reduction of visceral adipose tissue in HIV-associated lipodystrophy.
- AnimalPreclinical study2007
Thymosin β4 induces adult epicardial progenitor mobilization and neovascularization
Smart N et al. · Nature, 2007;445(7124):177–82 · PMID 17108969
Mouse study of thymosin β4 mobilizing epicardial progenitor cells. Parent-protein evidence.
- HumanControlled clinical study2006
An effect on the subjective sexual response in premenopausal women with sexual arousal disorder by bremelanotide (PT-141), a melanocortin receptor agonist
Diamond LE et al. · Journal of Sexual Medicine, 2006;3(4):628–38 · PMID 16839319
Earlier controlled study of PT-141 in women with sexual arousal disorder.
- HumanRandomized controlled trial2006
Effects of topical copper tripeptide complex on CO2 laser-resurfaced skin
Miller TR et al. · Archives of Facial Plastic Surgery, 2006;8(4):252–259 · PMID 16847171
The randomised human trial of topical GHK-Cu after laser resurfacing — objective endpoints were negative.
Limitations: Small trial; the result contradicts the in-vitro literature rather than confirming it.
- AnimalRabbit wound-healing study2006
Evaluation of the effects of topical tripeptide-copper complex and zinc oxide on open-wound healing in rabbits
Cangul IT et al. · Veterinary Dermatology, 2006;17(6):417–423 · PMID 17083573
Animal wound-healing study of topical GHK-Cu.
- MixedReview2006
Melanocortin peptide therapeutics: historical milestones, clinical studies and commercialization
Hadley ME, Dorr RT · Peptides, 2006;27(4):921–30 · PMID 16412534
History of the melanocortin program: from Melanotan I and II to the compounds that became Scenesse and Vyleesi.
- HumanRandomized pharmacology study in healthy adults2006
Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults
Teichman SL et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2006;91(3):799–805 · PMID 16352683
Human pharmacology study showing CJC-1295 with DAC produces multi-day elevation of GH and IGF-I after a single dose.
CJC-1295 + IpamorelinCited in our guide →Cited in our guide →
- HumanHuman pharmacology study2006
Pulsatile Secretion of Growth Hormone (GH) Persists during Continuous Stimulation by CJC-1295, a Long-Acting GH-Releasing Hormone Analog
Ionescu M, Frohman LA · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2006;91(12):4792–7 · PMID 17018654
Demonstrates that physiological pulsatile GH secretion continues during continuous CJC-1295 stimulation.
- HumanOpinion review2006
Sermorelin: a better approach to management of adult-onset growth hormone insufficiency?
Walker RF · Clinical Interventions in Aging · PMID 18046908
The argument piece behind most anti-aging sermorelin marketing: proposes GHRH restoration as preferable to exogenous GH. An argument, not a trial — no outcome study in healthy adults has tested it.
Limitations: Perspective article; presents a hypothesis rather than trial data.
- AnimalReview of preclinical literature2005
Thymosin β4: actin-sequestering protein moonlights to repair injured tissues
Goldstein AL, Hannappel E, Kleinman HK · Trends in Molecular Medicine, 2005;11(9):421–9 · PMID 16099219
Review of thymosin β4 biology and its repair mechanisms.
- HumanReview of an unpublished clinical program2004
AOD-9604 Metabolic (review of the clinical program)
Wilding J · Current Opinion in Investigational Drugs, 2004;5(4):436–40 · PMID 15134286
Review of the AOD-9604 clinical program.
Limitations: No human AOD-9604 trial result is indexed in PubMed; the phase 2 obesity data exists only in company disclosures.
- AnimalPreclinical study (cell and animal models)2004
Cell-permeable peptide antioxidants targeted to inner mitochondrial membrane inhibit mitochondrial swelling, oxidative cell death, and reperfusion injury
Zhao K et al. · Journal of Biological Chemistry, 2004;279(33):34682–90 · PMID 15178689
The foundational preclinical paper on the SS peptide family's mitochondrial protection.
- HumanPhase 1 pharmacology study2004
Evaluation of the safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects of subcutaneously administered PT-141 in healthy male subjects and in patients with an inadequate response to Viagra
Rosen RC et al. · International Journal of Impotence Research, 2004;16(2):135–42 · PMID 14999221
Early human safety and pharmacokinetics of subcutaneous PT-141.
- AnimalPreclinical study2004
Thymosin β4 activates integrin-linked kinase and promotes cardiac cell migration, survival and cardiac repair
Bock-Marquette I et al. · Nature, 2004;432(7016):466–72 · PMID 15565145
Landmark mouse study of the parent protein thymosin β4 in cardiac repair. Evidence about the parent protein, not the TB-500 fragment.
- HumanRandomized controlled trial2001
Effect of alendronate and MK-677 on markers of bone turnover and bone mineral density in postmenopausal osteoporotic women
Murphy MG et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · PMID 11238495
Bone-turnover and bone-density study of MK-677 with and without alendronate in postmenopausal osteoporosis.
- AnimalMouse study2001
The effects of human GH and its lipolytic fragment (AOD9604) on lipid metabolism following chronic treatment in obese mice and beta(3)-AR knock-out mice
Heffernan M et al. · Endocrinology, 2001;142(12):5182–9 · PMID 11713213
Mouse study of the GH fragment AOD9604 on lipid metabolism — the core preclinical basis for its fat-loss marketing.
- In vitroIn-vitro study2000
Antimicrobial effects of α-MSH peptides
Cutuli M et al. · Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 2000;67(2):233–9 · PMID 10670585
In-vitro study of antimicrobial activity of α-MSH peptides including the KPV sequence.
- HumanControlled clinical study2000
Effect of an alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone analog on penile erection and sexual desire in men with organic erectile dysfunction
Wessells H et al. · Urology, 2000;56(4):641–6 · PMID 11018622
Follow-up study of MT-II in organic erectile dysfunction.
- HumanReview1999
Sermorelin: a review of its use in the diagnosis and treatment of children with idiopathic growth hormone deficiency
Prakash A, Goa KL · BioDrugs · PMID 18031173
Review of sermorelin's diagnostic and therapeutic use in pediatric growth hormone deficiency — the indication it was actually approved for.
- AnimalPreclinical study1999
Thymosin β4 accelerates wound healing
Malinda KM et al. · Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 1999;113(3):364–8 · PMID 10469335
Early animal wound-healing study of thymosin β4.
- AnimalPreclinical characterization1998
Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue
Raun K et al. · European Journal of Endocrinology, 1998;139(5):552–61 · PMID 9849822
The original characterization of ipamorelin, showing GH release without the cortisol and prolactin elevation of earlier secretagogues.
CJC-1295 + IpamorelinCited in our guide →Cited in our guide →
- HumanRandomized controlled study1998
MK-677, an orally active growth hormone secretagogue, reverses diet-induced catabolism
Murphy MG et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · PMID 9467534
Short-term study showing MK-677 reversed the nitrogen loss caused by dietary restriction — the nitrogen-balance finding behind its muscle-preservation reputation.
- HumanDouble-blind placebo-controlled crossover study1998
Synthetic melanotropic peptide initiates erections in men with psychogenic erectile dysfunction: a double-blind, placebo controlled crossover study
Wessells H et al. · Journal of Urology, 1998;160(2):389–93 · PMID 9679884
Small crossover study of MT-II in psychogenic erectile dysfunction — the work that eventually led to PT-141's development.
- HumanSmall controlled study with polysomnography1997
Prolonged oral treatment with MK-677, a novel growth hormone secretagogue, improves sleep quality in man
Copinschi G et al. · Neuroendocrinology · PMID 9349662
Reported improvements in sleep quality measures during prolonged oral MK-677 treatment.
Limitations: Small, short study; sleep endpoints only.
- HumanPhase 1 pilot study1996
Evaluation of melanotan-II, a superpotent cyclic melanotropic peptide in a pilot phase-I clinical study
Dorr RT et al. · Life Sciences, 1996;58(20):1777–84 · PMID 8637402
The original small Phase 1 study of Melanotan II in humans — tanning response and side effects at low doses.
- HumanClinical trial (pediatric)1996
Once daily subcutaneous growth hormone-releasing hormone therapy accelerates growth in growth hormone-deficient children during the first year of therapy
Thorner M et al. · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · PMID 8772599
The pediatric efficacy study behind sermorelin's approval as Geref: once-daily subcutaneous GHRH(1-29) accelerated growth in GH-deficient children during the first year of therapy.
- HumanSmall controlled study in healthy old men1992
Growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone-(1-29) twice daily reverses the decreased GH and insulin-like growth factor-I levels in old men
Corpas E, Harman SM, Piñeyro MA, Roberson R, Blackman MR · Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · PMID 1379256
Short-term GHRH(1-29) in healthy older men restored GH and IGF-I levels toward the young-adult range. A hormone-level study — it did not measure body composition, strength or any clinical outcome.
Limitations: Small, short, surrogate endpoints only.
- In vitroIn-vitro study1992
Stimulation of sulfated glycosaminoglycan synthesis by the tripeptide-copper complex glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine-Cu²⁺
Wegrowski Y, Maquart FX, Borel JP · Life Sciences, 1992;51(13):1049–56 · PMID 1522753
In-vitro study showing stimulation of glycosaminoglycan synthesis.
- In vitroFibroblast culture study1988
Stimulation of collagen synthesis in fibroblast cultures by the tripeptide-copper complex glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine-Cu²⁺
Maquart FX et al. · FEBS Letters, 1988;238(2):343–6 · PMID 3169264
The foundational in-vitro finding: GHK-Cu stimulated collagen synthesis in fibroblast cultures.
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